Europe’s Cost-of-Living Crisis Is Driving People Into the Streets

A wave of demonstrations across Europe and beyond is putting pressure on governments over the cost of living, housing affordability and public services, as students, tenants, teachers and trade unions demand policy changes and greater government accountability.

Protests in France on October 17 drew between 550,000 people, according to the interior minister, and 800,000, according to organisers. In Spain, housing demonstrators in Madrid on October 3 drew an estimated 70,000 people, according to government authorities, while organisers put attendance at 500,000.

The demonstrations have different origins and demands, but reflect mounting concerns over household purchasing power, access to affordable accommodation and the quality of public services. Similar grievances have featured in protests in Greece, Belgium, Italy and Portugal, while university communities in Argentina have mobilised over public education funding.

The scale of the protests does not establish that the demonstrations form a coordinated international movement. Instead, they illustrate how economic pressures and disputes over government spending are generating unrest across countries with different political and economic conditions.

FRANCE: TURNOUT DISPUTE AND CLASHES

France witnessed widespread demonstrations on October 17, with protests focusing on the cost of living and conditions in schools.

Interior Minister Laurent Nuñez estimated that 550,000 people participated in 110 demonstrations nationwide, including 110,000 in Paris. Organisers put nationwide attendance at 800,000.

The competing figures underscore the difficulty of establishing reliable crowd estimates during large demonstrations. Neither figure should be treated as an independently verified count.

The protests were accompanied by clashes, looting and damage to public buildings and businesses in several cities. Authorities reported about 400 arrests, while police and demonstrators were involved in confrontations in Paris and other urban centres.

The violence has complicated the government’s response to the protests, raising questions about public order while leaving the underlying economic and education-related grievances unresolved.

The actions of individuals involved in criminal damage should also be distinguished from those of people participating peacefully in demonstrations.

SPAIN: HOUSING CRISIS FUELS ANGER

Housing affordability has become a major source of political tension in Spain, where demonstrators are demanding lower rents, stronger tenant protections and measures to improve access to accommodation.

At a Madrid demonstration on October 3, the government delegation estimated attendance at 70,000, while the organisers claimed 500,000 participants. The march followed parliament’s rejection of proposed housing relief measures.

The dispute reflects a wider challenge facing European governments as accommodation costs absorb an increasing share of household budgets, leaving less disposable income for food, transport, education and savings.

Eurostat data show that 7.7% of the European Union’s population lived in households spending at least 40% of disposable income on housing in 2025. The proportion was higher among people aged 15 to 29, at 9.1%.

The figures illustrate the pressure housing costs can place on younger people seeking financial independence, particularly in urban areas where employment and education opportunities are concentrated.

For policymakers, the challenge extends beyond expanding housing supply. It also involves balancing the interests of tenants, landlords, property investors and local communities while addressing the financial pressures facing lower-income households.

BELGIUM, ITALY AND PORTUGAL: ECONOMIC GRIEVANCES SPREAD

Belgium saw demonstrations in Brussels and Liège on October 17, amid opposition to austerity measures and concerns over education and public services. Reports indicated that nearly 200 people were arrested.

In Italy, student protests have focused on school conditions, education spending and rising living costs, while trade unions have mobilised around wages and fuel costs.

Portugal has also seen demonstrations and housing encampments amid demands for higher wages, better pensions and more affordable accommodation. A march in Lisbon on October 17 drew tens of thousands of people, according to estimates cited in reporting on the demonstration.

Although the protests share concerns about living standards and public spending, their immediate triggers differ. Some are directed at housing policies, others at education budgets, wages or government austerity measures.

The distinctions matter because governments face different policy choices in responding to each dispute, from increasing public investment to revising housing regulations and strengthening income support.

ARGENTINA: UNIVERSITY FUNDING DISPUTE

In Argentina, students, graduates, teachers and university employees marched in Buenos Aires on October 15 to demand that President Javier Milei’s government implement legislation guaranteeing funding for public universities.

The dispute centres on university resources and salary adjustments, highlighting tensions between the government’s fiscal priorities and demands to preserve access to publicly funded higher education.

For universities, funding affects more than operating budgets. It determines their ability to retain academic staff, maintain facilities, support research and provide affordable education.

The confrontation also reflects a broader political debate over the role of the state in financing public services as governments seek to control spending and reduce fiscal deficits.

GREECE: STUDENTS AND TEACHERS DEMAND INVESTMENT

Thousands of students and teachers demonstrated across Greece on October 21, demanding increased public education funding, better school facilities, higher teacher pay and less crowded classrooms.

Police estimated that about 10,000 people gathered in Athens and its suburbs, with additional demonstrations in other cities.

The protests add to pressure on Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis’s government as households contend with high rents, rising energy costs and concerns about purchasing power.

Greece’s experience highlights the gap that can emerge between national economic recovery and household perceptions of living standards. Improvements in economic indicators do not necessarily translate into affordable housing, adequate public services or stronger financial security for every household.

For younger people, the combination of housing costs, employment uncertainty and concerns about education can complicate the transition from school to work and independent living.

WHAT THE PROTESTS MEAN FOR GOVERNMENTS

The demonstrations pose a policy challenge for governments seeking to maintain fiscal discipline while responding to demands for better-funded public services and more affordable living conditions.

Potential responses include expanding housing supply, strengthening tenant protections, improving education funding, supporting low-income households and addressing wage pressures. The effectiveness of those measures will depend on national fiscal constraints, the design of policies and their implementation.

Governments must also protect the right to peaceful protest while responding proportionately to violence and criminal damage. Treating peaceful demonstrators and violent individuals as a single group risks obscuring the issues driving public discontent.

The protests also expose the limitations of relying on headline economic indicators to measure public welfare. Economic growth or lower inflation may not be sufficient to ease household pressures when rents, energy bills and other essential expenses remain high relative to incomes.

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